The Roman World: A Timeline of Roman Republic and Empire Events

ROME: one could spend decades studying the timeline of Roman Republicand Empireevents. And who wouldn’t want to?
 
I am, by training, a Latinist and while I still am fond of the Hellenistic world, the Romans are special.
 
Greek mythology and religionare notthe same as Roman mythologyand religion.
 
Greek politics are notthe same as Roman politics.
 
Greek identity is notthe same as Roman identity.
 
And the most important thing to keep in mind for these differences is this: Romeis, at heart, a small country town in Italy. It has one location and culture.
 
Greece, on the other hand, is a complex tapestry of unified language (not counting dialect changes) and some basic concepts, but scattered across a wide, variable area.
 
This is the core difference that will set the stage for how Romans thought of themselves, their country, their gods, and their neighbors.
 
Let’s get started back where it all began: Romulus, Remus, and a wolf.

Early Timeline of Roman Prehistory

Inscription featuring the name "ROMA," highlighting ancient Roman identity and cultural significance in classical studies.
The reality is much less entertaining — and much more obscure — than the legendary founding.
 
Much like in Greece, Indo-European settlers moved into the Italian peninsula, likely displacing Etruscans and other earlier peoples. They settled in small communities in the 2000s BCE and over the centuries, the settlements on the different Roman hills began to work together, form common business areas (like the Roman Forumand Forum Boarium), and a common Roman identity against the Etruscan civilizationand others in the area.
 
That began to really pick up in the 8th and 7th century, so it’s little wonder the founding of Romewas celebrated on April 21, 753 BCE.
 
 
But to recap the legendary kings of Romeand how the Romans thoughts of their history…
 

Roman Kings (April 21, 753-509 BCE)

  • The God Marsand the Vestal Virgin Rhea Silvia had illegitimate twins, Romulus and Remus. Romulusbecame the first king of Romeafter the founding of Romeand the building of the pomerium (a sacred boundary around Romemarking it’s “home” territory)… which led to him killing his brother Remus for jumping over said pomerium.
  • Yes, the pomerium is a big deal.
  • All of that sometimes gets tied into the Greek world with Romulus and Remusalso being descendents of Aeneas who fled Troy after the Trojan War(about 400 years between the 2 events).
  • Second king was Numa Pompilius, known for law.
  • Third king was Tullus Hostilius, known for being hostile (get it?).
  • Fourth king was Ancus Marcius.
  • Fifth king was Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the first of the Etruscan kings, which was the beginning of the end of the kings of Rome.
  • Sixth king was Servius Tullius, seized power after the assassination of Lucious Tarquinius Priscus.
  • Seventh and last king was Lucius Tarquinius Superbus(“the Arrogant”), who killed Servius Tulliusand took power. His family was the last straw (as recounted in the legend known as the Rape of Lucretia, in where the king’s son Sextus Tarquinius…well, did what the name implied, and so her husband, father-in-law, and friends expelled the king and founded the Roman Republic).
 

The Timeline of the Rise of Roman Power

Whether or not there were kings, Romeunited and eventually formed the Roman Republic. The Twelve Tableswere there with an overview of important Roman lawand concern for citizenshiprights. The Republic‘s structure is an important distiction from Athenian democracyfor Americans because American government is a republic, not a democracy.
 
The rough structure of government was the coruling of many magistrates with the Roman Senate.
 
The magistrate positions were arranged in a “Cursus Honorum” (Course of Honors) going from the lowly aedile to the two one-year ruling consuls. Never just one except in times of emergency — no more kings.
 
Roman society was also divided into two classes: the leading families who became the patricians and everyone else among the plebs/plebeians. Plebeiansgenerally found patrons among the patricians, and everyone did their duty for Rome.
 
Right?
 
Times did change, the plebians got richer and had more political control and ability to fill different positions if they could get the votes/support.
 
Now it’s time for the expansion of Roman territories in Italyand the Mediterranean.
 
By this point, they had already conquered the immediate people, but the engaged in a series of warsfor the next several centuries including:
  • fighting Gallic tribes (4th c.)
  • Latin War(340-338 BCE)
  • Samnite Wars
  • Pyrrhic War
 
But the most famous are the Punic Wars:
  • First Punic War(264–241 BCE):
  • Series of conflicts between Romeand Carthageafter Romesupported the Mamertinesagainst Syracuse and Carthage
  • Forced Rometo invest in its navy
  • Second Punic War(218 – 201 BCE):
  • The famous one with Hannibaland the elephants crossing into Spain and the Alps
  • Obliterated Romeat the Battle of Cannae, too
  • Scipio Africanuswas able to invate Africaand finally defeat Hannibalin Zama
  • Third Punic War(149 – 146 BCE):
  • Carthago Delenda Est
  • Romeobliterated Carthageand gained control of North Africa
 
Around this time, Romeinternally began to fall apart even though they continued to dominate the Mediterranean Sea through military power. They conquered Greece. They had provinces in AsiaMinor.
 
But back home, there were uprisings. The First Servile Warand the Gracchi brotherstried to settle the growing political unease. They did not.
 
Romehad other warsto fight (Jugurthine War, Cimbrian War), but then the Social Warbroke out close to home, and true civil warwas in the mix.
 
Control of Romewent back and forth between several factions: Gaius Marius, Sulla, Cinna, Pompey, Lepidus, Marcus LiciniusCrassus, Julius Caesar.
 
There was some real crazy drama.

The Transition Between Republic to Empire

We probably know the most about this period of historythanks to the copious letters of Marcus Tullius Cicero, a “novus homo” (new man) who had the rare talent and fortune to rise from an unknown family into the Roman Senate. He had a lot to say and a lot to prove.
 
While Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Crassus swapped political positions and military commands in an informal first triumvirate(You may be familiar with Julius Caesar‘s trip to Gaul, and the whole “crossing the rubicon“), Ciceroexposed Catiline‘s Conspiracy and became personal enemies with Publius Clodius Pulcher(and his sister). There was gang violence in the streets. Crassus died on campaign, and Julius Caesarand Pompeyhad a falling out.
 
Pompeydied in Egypt after fleeing from the Battle of Pharsalusin 48 BCE, and after several more battles, Julius Caesarhad no more problems ever.
 
Except when it became clear he was going to have power forever, becoming “Roman Dictatorfor Life,” which ended up being very short with the assassination of Julius Caesarand senators stabbed him to death on the Ides of March, 44 BCE.
 
It could have been the return of the Roman Republic, but that was not meant to be (depending on who you ask). Civil warcontinued with people (Mark Antonyand Octavian + Lepidus, as the Second Triumvirate) avenging Julius Caesar‘s assassins (Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus among the leaders).
 
The assassins/Liberators were defeated at the Battle of Philippi, and then the Second Triumviratehad to try to rule the Mediterranean Sea — and also make sure Pompey‘s son Sextus Pompeius didn’t avenge his father. They also had to worry about Fulvia (Mark Antony‘s wife) trying to get her husband, who was busy in the Eastern Empire, to be sole ruler of Rome. Octavian had to fight her some in the siegeof Perusia, but things settled down and Mark Antonymarried Octavia, Octavian’s sister, to solidify a truce.
 
The triumvirs began to turn on each other more during the waragainst Sextus Pompeyin Sicily. They defeated him but then started pointing fingers at each other for their decisions. Lepidusdidn’t really do much, but Octavian and Mark Antonystarted to build cases against each other. Since Mark Antonywas hanging out in Egypt with Cleopatra–and he divorced Octavia — Octavian managed to convince the majority of the Roman senators to declair waragainst Cleopatra. Fighting, fighting, fighting, Cleopatragot obliterated at the Battle of Actium. She and Mark Antonyfled back to Egypt, where they both committed suicide after fighting in Alexandria.

Roman Empire (27 BCE–476 CE):

Then there was the period of imperial rule following the end of the Roman Republic. Exactly when it began is debatable. For many years, people hoped and deluded themselves that they were still in the Roman Republic. It wasn’t until the emperorVespasianthat imperial powers were actually codified. But in 27 BCE, the Roman Senategave Octavian the title of Augustusand many consistent powers and privledges that more or less made him the first Roman emperor.
 
You can view it as a continuation of Roman class society, though. People always depended upon people in higher position for patronage in Rome. Augustuswas just the ultimate patron.
 
But however you view it, basically what the Roman emperorsaid, the Roman senateapproved.
 
The so-called Pax Romana (Roman Peace) lasted during the first two centuries CE. Another misnomer given the many warsfought — against the Parthian Empire, the Germans, the Britons, and more. But I guess they had to keep the army busy with the occassional attempt at a new Roman province.
 
Emperors included:
  • Augustus, as discussed, came to sole rule after struggles with Antony, husband of Livia, slowly gained more power through the Roman Senate. He had about 5 designated heirs before he was stuck with Tiberius.
  • Tiberius, Livia‘s son, did okay for a while until he didn’t.
  • Caligula, possibly killed Tiberiusand the first kind of crazy emperor, calling himself a god. Caligulais a nickname from his army childhood, meaning “Little Boot.”
  • Claudius, Caligula‘s uncle and something of a black sheep of the family since he had a stutter and a limp. But for all that, the Praetorian Guardproclaimed him emperorafter they killed Caligula, and he actually did a lot of good works for Ancient Rome.
  • Nero, another crazy who fiddled while Romeburned, according to the story. He committed suicide.
  • Galba, the first in the year of the four emperors. Had the support of the Senate and the Praetorian Guardinitially.
  • Otho, led a coup against Galba.
  • Vitellius, led a coup also. The Roman armywas making their votes through battle.
  • Vespasian, supported by the eastern legions and then recognized by the Senate. Started a short Flavian dynasty. Began construction of the Colosseum(Ancient Rome‘s big amphitheater) which got that nickname because of a colassal statue of Nero.
  • Titus, good son of Vespasian. Famous for sacking Jerusalem.
  • Domitian, bad son of Vespasian.
  • Nerva, the start of the 5 good emperors. They picked their successors not from their sons.
  • Trajan, has an awesome column.
  • Hadrian, has an awesome beard. Very Greek.
  • Antoninus Pius, nobody says much, which must mean he’s great.
  • Marcus Aurelius, wrote philosophyand made a bad successor choice.
  • Lucius Verus, co-ruler with Marcus Aureliusfor a little while.
  • Commodus, son of Marcus Aureliusand bad choice.
  • Pertinax, chaotic year but tried his best.
  • Didius Julianus, basically same.
  • Septimius Severus, started Severan dynasty.
  • Caracalla, son of Septimius Severus, the crazy one.
  • Geta, son of Septimius Severus, co-ruler and murdered by Caracalla.
  • Macrinus, chaos
  • Diadumenian, chaos
  • Elagabalus, crazy emperorwho is another “god” of the “sun” or something
  • Severus Alexander, eventually killed by army
  • TONS OF EMPERORS. Let’s not go into the crisis of the third century and more– but famous names include Gordian I, Valerian, ended with Carus, Carinusand Numerian (a personal favorite trio of father and sons because Nemesianus wrote his Cynegetica to them).
 
Then we get the movement from Diocletianand continued strife between Romeand Christianity— the empiredivides into the Western Roman Empireand the Eastern Roman Empire.
  • Diocletian
  • Maximian
  • Galerius
  • Constantius I
  • Severus II
  • Maxentius
  • Licinius
  • Maximinus
  • Valerius Valens
  • Martinian
 
 
And then all the Constantines (yay, Christianity, says Constantine the Great) and Apostate issues (Juliansays No thanks), until we finally get to Theodosius’ chain and end with Romulus Augustulus, the last emperorin the western empireat the sack of Rome.

History of Rome in the Late Empire and Beyond

Fall of the Western Roman Empire(476 CE):
  • Traditional date marking the end of ancient Rome.
  • The fall of Carthageis one of the other markers.
  • Various factors, including economic decline, military challenges, and invasions by Gothsand Vandals, contributed to the fall. And there’s the moral/virtue argument, too.
 
The Eastern Roman Empirecontinues for a very long time, called the Byzantine Empireand sometimes the Holy Roman Empire, so we still have emperors like Justinian Iand his wife Theodorato look forward to. Emperors from the East do continue to look West and try to maintain a hold in Romeand Italy.
 
But of course then there was the Fall of Constantinoplein 1453 and the Ottoman Empiregained control in the Byzantine Empire.
 
Coming Soon, dedicated pages on:
 
Literature
 
History
 
Philosophy
 
Leisure
 
Archaeology
 
Religion
 
Roman Mythology
 
and more as we review resources to help you teach yourself Classics!